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Agriculture in Scotland in the early modern era includes all forms of farm production in the modern boundaries of Scotland, between the establishment of the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century and the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the mid-eighteenth century. This era saw the impact of the Little Ice Age, which peaked towards the end of the seventeenth century. Almost half the years in the second half of the sixteenth century saw local or national scarcity, necessitating the shipping of large quantities of grain from the Baltic. In the early seventeenth century famine was relatively common. The closing decade of the seventeenth century saw a slump, followed by four years of failed harvests, in what is known as the "seven ill years", but these shortages would be the last of their kind. As feudal distinctions declined in the early modern era, the barons and tenants-in-chief merged to form a new identifiable group, the lairds. With the yeomen, these heritors were the major landholding orders. Others with property rights included husbandmen and free tenants. Many young people left home to become domestic and agricultural servants. The English invasions of the 1640s had a profound impact on the Scottish economy. Under the Commonwealth, the country was relatively highly taxed, but gained access to English markets. After the Restoration customs duties with England were re-established. Economic conditions were generally favourable, as land owners promoted better tillage and cattle-raising. After the Union of 1707 there was a conscious attempt to improve agriculture among the gentry and nobility. Introductions included haymaking, the English plough, foreign grasses, rye grass and clover, turnips and cabbages. Lands were enclosed, displacing the run rig system and free pasture. Marshes were drained, lime was put down, roads built, woods planted, drilling and sowing and crop rotation were introduced. The introduction of the potato to Scotland in 1739 greatly improved the diet of the peasantry. The resulting Lowland Clearances saw hundreds of thousands of cottars and tenant farmers from central and southern Scotland were forcibly removed. ==Sixteenth century== Scotland is roughly half the size of England and Wales and has approximately the same amount of coastline, but only between a fifth and a sixth of the amount of the arable or good pastoral land, under 60 metres above sea level, and most of this is located in the south and east.〔E. Gemmill and N. J. Mayhew, ''Changing Values in Medieval Scotland: a Study of Prices, Money, and Weights and Measures'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), ISBN 0521473853, pp. 8–10.〕 The early modern era saw the impact of the Little Ice Age, of colder and wetter weather, which peaked towards the end of the seventeenth century.〔I. D. White, "Rural Settlement 1500–1770", in M. Lynch, ed., ''Oxford Companion to Scottish History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), ISBN 0199693056, pp. 542–3.〕 In 1564 there were thirty-three days of continual frost, with rivers and lochs freezing over.〔J. E. A. Dawson, ''Scotland Re-Formed, 1488–1587'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0748614559, pp. 8–11.〕 This reduced the altitude at which crops could be grown and shortened the growing season by up to two months in extreme years.〔T. C. Smout, "Land and sea: the environment", in T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, eds, ''The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), ISBN 0191624330, p. 22-3.〕 One result was the abandonment of marginal land in the sixteenth century, as it became impossible to sustain agriculture, particularly in the uplands, but new settlements were created as a result of the opening up of hunting reserves like Ettrick Forest and less desirable low-lying land was also settled, often incorporating features into their names such as bog, marsh and muir.〔 Almost half the years in the second half of the sixteenth century saw local or national scarcity, necessitating the shipping of large quantities of grain from the Baltic,〔J. Wormald, ''Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0748602763, pp. 166–8.〕 referred to as Scotland's "emergency granary". This was particularly from Poland through the port of Danzig, but later Königsberg and Riga, shipping Russian grain, and Swedish ports, would become important. The trade was so important that Scottish colonies were established in these ports.〔H. H. Lamb, ''Climatic History and the Future'' (London: Taylor & Francis, 1977), ISBN 0691023875, p. 472.〕 While barons held increasingly nominal feudal tenures〔J. Wormald, ''Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0748602763, pp. 30–3.〕 local tenants-in-chief, who held legally held their land directly from the king and who by the sixteenth century were often the major local landholders in an area, grew in significance. As feudal distinctions declined, the barons and tenants-in-chief merged to form a new identifiable group, the lairds,〔R. Mitchison, ''Lordship to Patronage, Scotland 1603–1745'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1983), ISBN 074860233X, p. 79.〕 roughly equivalent to the English gentlemen.〔A. Grant, "Service and tenure in late medieval Scotland 1324–1475" in A. Curry and E. Matthew, eds, ''Concepts and Patterns of Service in the Later Middle Ages'' (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2000), ISBN 0851158145, pp. 145–65.〕 Below the lairds were a variety of groups, often ill-defined. These included yeomen, later characterised by Walter Scott as "bonnet lairds", often owning substantial land.〔R. Mitchison, ''Lordship to Patronage, Scotland 1603–1745'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1983), ISBN 074860233X, p. 80.〕 The practice of feuing (by which a tenant paid an entry sum and an annual feu duty, but could pass the land on to their heirs) meant that the number of people holding heritable possession of lands, which had previously been controlled by the church or nobility, expanded.〔J. Wormald, ''Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0748602763, pp. 51–2.〕 These and the lairds probably numbered about 10,000 by the seventeenth century〔 and became what the government defined as heritors, on whom the financial and legal burdens of local government increasingly fell.〔J. E. A. Dawson, ''Scotland Re-Formed, 1488–1587'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0748614559, p. 331.〕 Below the substantial landholders were those engaged in subsistence agriculture, who made up the majority of the working population.〔A. Grant, "Late medieval foundations", in A. Grant and K. J. Stringer, eds, ''Uniting the Kingdom?: the Making of British History'' (London: Routledge, 1995), ISBN 0415130417, p. 99.〕 Those with property rights included husbandmen, lesser landholders and free tenants.〔R. Mitchison, ''Lordship to Patronage, Scotland 1603–1745'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1983), ISBN 074860233X, p. 82.〕 Below them were the cottars, who often shared rights to common pasture, occupied small portions of land and participated in joint farming as hired labour. Farms also might have grassmen, who had rights only to grazing.〔 By the early modern era in Lowland rural society, as in England, many young people, both male and female, left home to become domestic and agricultural servants.〔I. D. Whyte, "Population mobility in early modern Scotland", in R. A. Houston and I. D. Whyte, ''Scottish Society, 1500–1800'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), ISBN 0521891671, p. 52.〕 Women acted as an important part of the workforce. As well as moving away from their families as farm servants, married women worked with their husbands around the farm, taking part in all the major agricultural tasks. They had a particular role as shearers in the harvest, forming most of the reaping team of the ''bandwin''.〔R. Mitchison, ''Lordship to Patronage, Scotland 1603–1745'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1983), ISBN 074860233X, pp. 86–8.〕 Most farming was based on the Lowland fermtoun or Highland baile, settlements of a handful of families that jointly farmed an area.〔 The most common system was based on infield and outfield agriculture. The infield was the best land, close to housing. It was farmed continuously and most intensively, receiving most of the manure. Crops were usually bere (a form of barley), oats and sometimes wheat, rye and legumes. The more extensive outfield was used for largely for oats. It was fertilised largely from the overnight folding of cattle in the summer and was often left fallow to recover its fertility. In fertile regions the infield could be extensive, but in the uplands it might be small, surrounded by large amounts of outfield. In coastal areas fertiliser included seaweed and around the major burghs urban refuse was used. Yields were fairly low, often around three times the quantity of seed sown, although they could reach twice that yield on some infields.〔 The area of arable land farmed by a family was notionally suitable for two or three plough teams, allocated in run rigs.〔J. Wormald, ''Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0748602763, pp. 41–55.〕 Runrigs, were a ridge and furrow pattern, similar to that used in parts of England, with alternating "runs" (furrows) and "rigs" (ridges).〔I. D. Whyte and K. A. Whyte, ''The Changing Scottish Landscape: 1500–1800'' (London: Taylor & Francis, 1991), ISBN 0415029929, p. 61.〕 They usually ran downhill so that they included both wet and dry land, helping to offset some of the problems of extreme weather conditions. Most ploughing was done with a heavy wooden plough with an iron coulter, pulled by oxen, which were more effective on heavy soils and cheaper to feed than horses.〔 They were usually pulled by a team of eight oxen,〔R. McKitterick and D. Abulafia, eds, ''The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 1024-c. 1198'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), ISBN 0521853605, p. 590.〕 which would have taken four men to operate and only covered half an acre a day.〔G. Donaldson, ''Scotland: the Shaping of a Nation'' (David & Charles, 2nd edn., 1980), ISBN 0715379755, p. 231.〕 In the late sixteenth century population growth in the west Highlands prompted an abandonment of ploughing in favour of more intensive cultivation methods using spades and foot ploughs (cas chrom) with lazy beds, which produced larger furrows with narrower channels between and allowed arable cultivation〔I. D. Whyte, "Economy: primary sector: 1 Agriculture to 1770s", in M. Lynch, ed., ''The Oxford Companion to Scottish History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 206–7.〕 in locations where ploughing would have been impossible.〔I. D. Whyte, "Economy of the Highlands and Islands: 1 to 1700", in M. Lynch, ed., ''The Oxford Companion to Scottish History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 202–3.〕 Pasture was often accessed by shielling-grounds, with shelters made of stone or turf, used for the grazing of cattle in summer. These would often be distant from the main settlements in the Lowlands, but might be relatively close in the more remote Highlands.〔P. Dixon, "Rural settlement: I Medieval", in M. Lynch, ed., ''The Oxford Companion to Scottish History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 540–2.〕 All farms combined livestock with arable, with cattle and sheep and goats in parts of the Highlands and all farms growing some grain. However, there was some specialisation, with arable most important in the East and there was a tradition of sheep farming in the eastern Borders dating back to the arrival of new monastic orders in the twelfth century, which continued after the secularisation of the monasteries.〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Agriculture in Scotland in the early modern era」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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